The Brihadeshwara Temple, Thanjavur
Jewels of the Great God
by Usha R. Balakrishnan
The Brihadeshwara Temple at sunrise. All images on this page are from Wikimedia Commons.
The Temple
In the year 1010, Rajaraja Chola I (r. 985-1014) undertook the construction of a temple in the town of Thanjavur located in the delta of the Kaveri River in south India [1]. Known as the Brihadeshwara Temple, or temple of the Great God (Brihad = great, Ishwara = God), it was dedicated to Rajaraja’s patron deity, Lord Shiva and arose as a monumental edifice commemorating the power and glory of one of the greatest dynasties of south India. Thanjavur was the imperial capital of the Cholas, who ruled a vast empire between the 9th and 13th centuries. In its heyday, the empire stretched across a vast swathe of land from the River Ganges in the north, encompassing modern-day Odisha, all the way down to the shores of the Indian Ocean; it was also a thalassocracy, the power and influence of the Cholas extended across the seas, from the Maldives in the west to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and even Sumatra in the east. While the empire collapsed at the end of the 12th century, the incredible wealth and legacy of the Chola dynasty is manifest in their patronage of literature and the arts, and in the magnificent temples that they built.
The Brihadeshwara temple is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and has been designated as a “Great Living Chola Temple’ (worship and rituals continue in the temple even today). The temple is also variously known as Thanjai Periya Kovil, the Thanjavur Big Temple or Rajarajeshwaram, temple of the God of Rajaraja. Rajaraja himself referred to his temple as Dakshina Meru or the southern abode of Lord Shiva [2], and his favourite deity as Dakshina Meru Vitankar in his inscriptions.
Mural Painting depicting Raja Raja Chola and his Guru.
Construction of the temple began in about 1003-1004 CE, and it was consecrated by Rajaraja in 1010 CE. The Chola kingdom was economically prosperous – they not only controlled every important trading port in south India, but they also had a monopoly over production of the gold mines of Kolar, the pearl fisheries in the Gulf of Mannar, the diamond mines that lay between the rivers Krishna and Pennar on the Deccan plateau (the Golconda mines) and the gem production of Ceylon as well.
Rajaraja spared no expense in the temple’s construction. The rectangular temple complex is spread over an area of about 240.79 metres east to west, and 121.92 metres north to south. It includes a colonnaded enclosure with sub-shrines, the sanctum with a towering superstructure, and a gopuram or monumental entrance tower at the entrance. The main temple stands on a high platform in the center of the rectangular courtyard and is surmounted by a vimana or pyramidal tower that soars to a height of about 66 meters. A massive monolithic stone lingam, the aniconic representation of Shiva, is installed inside the karuvarai, the womb chamber or the sanctum sanctorum; the Nandi mandapam hall housing Nandi or bull vehicle of Shiva, is in front with various other pavilions arranged around the hall. A profusion of murals and monumental sculptures adorn the temple walls, along with inscriptions in Tamil and Grantha script.
The Entrance gateways and the Nandi mandapam.
The Inscriptions and Gems
While the architecture of the edifice is of great interest, and the sculptures are of outstanding beauty, the inscriptions on the walls of the temple are unique in the realm of Indian history. They are a treasure trove of information on the social, cultural, political life and economy of the times, as well as the administration of the temple and endowments. Significantly, detailed information on the temple’s vast treasury of gems and jewels is meticulously recorded in the inscriptions. While these large reserves were partially used to fund their forays and conquests, the kings retained much for themselves, and gifted magnificent jewels to adorn their temple deities. For example, a single diadem (tiruppattam) weighing no less than a staggering 981 1/4 karanju or four and a half kilograms (one karanju = 4.50 grams) made from gold obtained during his campaigns against the Cheras [3], was gifted by Rajaraja to his favourite deity, Dakshina Meru Vitankar.
A view of the inscriptions.
The inscriptions record that a mula-ratna-bhandarattar, or chief treasurer was in charge of the department of jewels. His work involved the computation of the composition of the jewel, recording the number of pearls and other precious stones, their quality, their weight and even the condition and value of the ornament. Working under royal patronage, jewellers called “kankani-tat-tan” [4] or peerless craftsmen, were employed by the temple to produce a never-ending supply of ornaments for the king, his court and for the idols in the temple.
The metric system in effect in the Chola period was “founded on seminal weights of native seeds, for weighing gems, gold and pearls” [5]. A grain of rice in its husk served as the lowest weight, while the next high weight was kunri; 2 kunri was equal to 1 manjadi and 10 manjadi equalled one karanju, which was the highest weight [6]. Manjadi, is the red-coloured seed of the Adenanthera pavonine, commonly known as the Red Bead Tree or Red Sandalwood. In Tamil, the name for the tree is manjadi. The seeds are practically similar in weight, the average weight of each seed being 0.292 to 0.324 grams [7]. Karanju is the seed of the Guilandina bonduc, commonly known as the Yellow Nicker or Fever Nut and as karanja in various Indian languages; it is a thorny climbing shrub with hard grey shiny seeds, weighing 2.915 to 3.24 grams each [8]. Kasu was the general term for coinage, while dandavani or dandavallan was the standard for assessing the purity of gold [9].
The largest quantity of gemstones in the inscriptions are pearls or muttu, and they number in the thousands. They are classified according to their shape and quality, and among the many different varieties, there are vattam (round pearls), anu vattam (roundish pearls), oppu muttu (polished pearls), kuru muttu (small pearls), pala muttu (old pearls), ipppi-parru aravina muttu (pearls in the shell), sivanda neer (pearls of red water), kulirnda neer (pearls of brilliant water), varai (pearls with lines), karai (pearls with stains), kurru (pearls with red dots), supperiam (pearls with white specks) tirangal (pearls with wrinkles), sappatti (flat pearls), karadu (crude pearls), punichchey muttu (pearls, the color of toddy), tolteynda muttu (pearls whose surfaces were worn out), tolidanda muttu (pearls whose surfaces were cracked) and irrattai muttu (twin pearls).
The classification of diamonds or vayiram is similarly extensive. There are matta tarai vayiram (smooth-edged diamond), matta tarai savakka vayiram (square smooth-edged diamond), matta tarai sappatti vayiram (flat and smooth-edged diamond), porivu (spotted diamond), murivu (cracked diamond), rakta-bindu (red-spotted diamond), kaka-bindu (black spotted diamond), venda vayiram (burnt or burning diamond), tooya vayiram (pure diamond), and urulai vayiram (round diamond).
And multiple varieties of rubies or manikkam are mentioned, such as komalam (smooth ruby), halahalam (plain ruby), halahalam gunaviyan (ruby of superior class), neela-gandhi (bluish ruby), talam (unpolished ruby), kuliru (ruby with cavities), praharam (ruby with cuts), vejjam (ruby with holes), lasuni or ilasunam (ruby with white specks), trasam (ruby with flaws), and karparruudaiya manikkam (ruby adhering to ore).
Icons and Adornment
Chola kings and queens commissioned bronze sculptors to make festive icons (utsava murthis) for the temples. During the annual temple festivals (brahmotsavams), these icons were taken out in procession and showered with offerings. One inscription recounts that,
“One hundred and sixty-five sacred gold flowers (tirupporpu) consisting of eight hundred and twenty-five karanju of gold, - each sacred gold flower consisting of five karanju of gold” were offered to the Goddess Umaparamesvari, the consort of our lord Adavallar Dakshina-Meru-Vitankar” [10].
In fact, Chola monopoly of the pearl fisheries ensured such an unlimited supply, that Rajaraja showered vast quantities of pearls ‘as flowers at the feet of the Lord.’
The gods in India are always invoked with flowers (pushpanjali). The act of worship as enumerated in the Gandharva Tantra states that flowers function “as a vehicle to convey the devotee’s life-breath into an outside image” [11]. The inanimate thereby becomes animate. As a result of the belief that a giver of gold will receive manifold returns of long life, health, wealth and even release from the cycle of birth and death (moksha), temple treasuries benefited abundantly from the generosity of those seeking to appease the gods.
Throughout India and especially in South Indian temples, the deities are offered a series of devotional services, known as upacaras. While the services vary between Shiva, Vishnu and Devi temples and large temples have their own traditions, it usually consists of abhishekam (anointing with milk, sandalwood paste and honey), alamkāram (adornment with clothes and jewels), naivedhyam (offerings of food) and deeparadhana (lamp showing). Alamkāra, adornment with jewels enhances beauty, affords pleasure and most importantly transforms the transcendental to corporeal – adorned with beautiful jewels, the gods assume an earthly persona. The gods were therefore beneficiaries of vast quantities of ornaments.
The inscriptions in the Brihadeshwara Temple record the contemporary names of more than sixty-five different kinds of ornaments. The names read like poetry – karai, saptasari, kanthika, ratna-katakam, tiru-makaram, makuta and so on. Most of these ornament terms are no longer in use and it is difficult to match names to styles and designs. But, based on the inscriptions and comparison with the jewels on sculptures and bronze icons of the period and in the mural paintings in the circumambulatory passage around the sanctum sanctorum of the temple, there were jewels for the head, ears, neck, arms, waist and even feet and any attempt to match ornament names to designs, is at best, hypothetical.
The Jewels - crowns, diadems, neck ornaments, bracelets, earrings and waist-bands
Guardian figure.
The most magnificent jewels, set with immense quantities of gems are makuta or crowns. The inscriptions record, “One sacred crown (makuta), (containing) three hundred and forty-eight karanju and a half and three tenths (of a manjadi) of gold. Eight hundred and fifty-nine diamonds (vayiram), set (into it), viz., six hundred and thirty-six diamonds with smooth edges (mattadarai), one hundred and sixty-nine square diamonds with smooth edges (mattadarai-savakkam), thirty-[two] flat diamonds with smooth edges (mattadarai-sappadi),… Including such as had spots, cracks (murivu), red dots (rakta-bindu), black dots (kaka-bindu), and marks as of burning (vendana), — weighed seven karanju and three quarters, four manjadi and four tenths. Three hundred and nine large (pariya) and small (neriya) rubies (manikkam), viz., one hundred and twenty-five halahalam of superior quality (gunaviyan), one hundred and twenty-two halahalam, forty-one smooth rubies (komalam), eleven bluish rubies (nilagandhi) and ten unpolished rubies (talam), -including such as had cavities (kurivu), cuts, holes, while specks (lasuni), flaws (trasa), and such as still adhered to the ore (kal), — weighed fourteen karanju and three quarters, two manjadi and eight tenths. Six hundred and sixty-nine large and small pearls, set (into it) or strung, — including round pearls (vattam), roundish pearls (anuvattam), polished pearls (oppu-muttu), small pearls (kuru-muttu), nimbolam, payittam, old pearls (para-muttu), such as had been polished while still adhering to the shell (ippi), (pearls) of red water and of brilliant water, (and pearls) with lines (varai), stains (karai), red dots and while specks (subhra), — weighed thirty-six karanju, (one) manjadi and (one) kunri. Altogether, (the crown) weighed four hundred and seven karanju and nine manjadi, corresponding to a value of five thousand kasu.”
A diadem or vira-patta, the flat band around the forehead that adorns the images of the gods is described as “(containing) three hundred and forty-three ka[ranju and]… of gold, which was a quarter inferior in fineness of the (gold standard called) dandavani… [crystals, which were fastened (on it), weighed… seven karanju and [(one) manjadi]. [Three potti] weighed (one) ma[njadi]. Ten [diamond crystals] weighed (one) manjadi and (one) kunri. The lac in (it) and the bands (bandha) weighed two hundred and seventy-six [karanju and a half, and] three manjadi. [The pinju weighed… karanju and three quarters, four manjadi and (one) kunri. Sixty-four corals, which were strung on it (and taken) from the corals, for which the treasurers [of the chief jewels] supplied the funds [from the gold], which the lord Sri-Rajarajadeva [had seized after conquering] the Chera king and the Pandyas, weighed seven karanju, eight manjadi and (one) kunri. [Thirteen] thousand three hundred and [twenty]-eight [pearls], (which were taken from) the pearls of [the second quality], which the lord Sri-Rajarajadeva had poured out as flowers at the sacred feet and with which he had worshipped the feet of the god, (viz.,) round pearls, roundish pearls, polished pearls, small pearls, nimbolam, payittam, ambumudu, crude pearls, twin pearls, sappatti, sakkattu (pearls) of brilliant water and of red water, weighed five hundred and forty-seven karanju. Altogether, (the diadem) weighed one thousand one hundred and ninety-seven karanju seven manjadi and (one) kunri, and was worth… kasu.”
Several types of neck ornaments are mentioned and judging by evidence on the sculptures and descriptions in the inscriptions, these necklets were probably made from sheet gold worked in repoussé and embellished with gems. Pearls, beads, or gold drops in flower bud forms were suspended along the lower edge. The tassel that tied the necklace around the neck usually bore a pipal leaf-shaped pendant that can be seen lying whimsically upon the left or right shoulder of bronze images of the period. A saptasari or seven-strand necklace, for example, is recorded in the following manner: “One ornament of seven strings (saptasari), weighing, with the lac, thirty-six karanju and three quarters, three manjadi and (one) kunri, and worth one hundred kasu. On (it) were strung three hundred and seventy-two pearls, — viz., round pearls, roundish pearls, polished pearls, small pearls, sappatti, sakkattu, crude pearls, nimbolam, payittam, (pearls) resembling toddy in colour (panichchay), (pearls) with rubbed surface and with cracked surface, (pearls) of red water and old pearls, — fourteen corals and fourteen lapis lazuli. On the two front plates were fastened eight crystals, eight potti, two talimbam (each of) which consisted of seven (pieces) soldered together, one eye (padugan) and one hook (kokkuvay).” Female deities also almost always wear the auspicious marriage necklace with a cup-shaped disc, tali bottu on a simple wire or chain of beads high around their throats; other necklace varieties include kantha-tudar –– several gold chains held with clasps at the ends, the kantha-nan a necklace of diamonds, rubies and sapphires strung on a gold ring, and the simple chain or kanthika.
Lord Nataraja, bronze statue.
Bracelets were of infinite variety, from the simple bangle known as valayil, to those set with gems or corals, the ratna-katakam or pavala-katakam, and armlets made from gold and set with many gems, referred to as pottu or tiru-kai-karai. One armband, sri-bahu-valaya is particularly impressive: “One sacred armlet (sri-bahu-valaya), (containing) eighty-[nine] karanju and (one) manjadi, one tenth and one fortieth of gold. Four hundred and forty-one diamonds, set (into it), viz., twenty pure diamonds, four hundred and six diamonds with smooth edges, five flat diamonds with smooth edges, and ten square diamonds with smooth edges, — including such as had spots, cracks, red dots, black dots, and marks as of burning, — weighed three karanju, two manjadi and three fortieths. Fifty-four large and small rubies, viz., eight halahalam of superior quality, seventeen halahalam, nineteen smooth rubies, two bluish rubies and eight unpolished rubies, — including such as had cavities, cuts, holes, white specks, flaws, and such as still adhered to the ore, — weighed six karanju and a half, two manjadi and three tenths. Sixty-eight strung pearls, — including round pearls, roundish pearls, polished pearls, small pearls, payittam, (pearls) of brilliant water and of red water, such as had been polished while still adhering to the shell, (and pearls with) lines, stains, red dots and white specks, — weighed five karanju and three quarters, three manjadi and (one) kunri. Altogether, (the armlet) weighed one hundred and four karanju and a half and four manjadi, corresponding to a value of one thousand two hundred and fifty kasu” [12][1]
Earrings of pearls, muttin-mattirai, gold rings, tiru-kambi and ear ornaments shaped like a crocodile, the tiru-makaram outnumber the ubiquitous round ear studs set with precious stones popularly known as thodu. One large earring, known as the tiru-vali is composed of “(one) karanju, eight manjadi and eight tenths of gold. Nine pearls sewn on, including round pearls, polished pearls, nimbolam, (pearls) of brilliant water; (and pearls) with lines… Weighed (one) karanju and nine tenths (of a manjadi). Altogether, (the ear-ring) weighed two karanju, nine manjadi and seven tenths, corresponding to a value of fifteen kasu.”
Elaborate waist bands known as tiruppattigai made of gold flowers set with diamonds and other precious stones, with lace like fringes of pearls along the lower edge, held in place with large demon-face clasps seen primarily on male figures, and with crocodile clasps for female figures, make their appearance in the Chola period. Even the unobtrusive toe rings, the tiru-kal-modiram, are not omitted in the detailed rendering of jewellery on sculptures of the period and find mention in the inscriptions: “Ten rings for the toes of the goddess (tirukkal-modiram), consisting of fourteen karanju and three quarters, two manjadi and (one) kunri of gold.”
Mentioning just a few from among the many inscriptions that describe jewels, this essay provides a glimpse into the wealth of the Cholas, the abundant resources, knowledge of gemmology and the meticulous details that, in the absence of any hitherto known surviving pieces, shed light on the magnificent jewels of the great God.
Notes
[1] The description of the jewels in this essay is based on research in Thanjavur and on two principal publications: Hultzsch, E., V. B. Venkayya, and H. Krishna Sastri. Tamil inscriptions in the Rajarajesvara temple at Tanjavur and other miscellaneous records of the Chola, Pallava, Pandya and Vijayanagara dynasties, Vol. II, No. 67 (Madras: Printed and Pub. by the superintendent, Gov't Press, 1916) and Venkatraman, B. Rajarajesvaram: The Pinnacle of Chola Art. (Madras: Mudgala Trust, 1985).
[2] Uttara Meru, or the Northern Meru Mountain is a reference to Mount Kailash, abode of Shiva, and represents the center of the universe. The Sun and all the planets in the Solar System revolve around Mount Meru. The Brihadeshwara temple was termed Dakshina Meru, or the center of divine power in the south.
[3] B Venkatraman, B. Rajarajesvaram: The Pinnacle of Chola Art. (Madras: Mudgala Trust, 1985), 169.
[4] Hultzsch, E., V. B. Venkayya, and H. Krishna Sastri. Tamil inscriptions in the Rajarajesvara temple at Tanjavur and other miscellaneous records of the Chola, Pallava, Pandya and Vijayanagara dynasties, Vol. II, No. 67 (Madras: Printed and Pub. by the superintendent, Gov't Press, 1916), 303.
[5] Bandela, Prasanna Rao. Coin Splendour: A Journey into the Past. (New Delhi: Abhinav, 2003), 80.
[6] Bandela, Prasanna Rao. Coin Splendour: A Journey into the Past. (New Delhi: Abhinav, 2003), 80.
[7] Bandela, Prasanna Rao. Coin Splendour: A Journey into the Past. (New Delhi: Abhinav, 2003), 81.
[8] Bandela, Prasanna Rao. Coin Splendour: A Journey into the Past. (New Delhi: Abhinav, 2003), 81.
[9] Venkatraman, B. Rajarajesvaram: The Pinnacle of Chola Art. (Madras: Mudgala Trust, 1985), 189.
[10] Hultzsch, E., V. B. Venkayya, and H. Krishna Sastri. Tamil inscriptions in the Rajarajesvara temple at Tanjavur and other miscellaneous records of the Chola, Pallava, Pandya and Vijayanagara dynasties, Vol. II, No. 67 (Madras: Printed and Pub. by the superintendent, Gov't Press, 1916), 19.
[11] Zimmer, Heinrich, and Joseph Campbell. The Art of Indian Asia. Its Mythology and Transformations. (New York: Princeton University Press, 1983), 319.
[12] Hultzsch, E., V. B. Venkayya, and H. Krishna Sastri. Tamil inscriptions in the Rajarajesvara temple at Tanjavur and other miscellaneous records of the Chola, Pallava, Pandya and Vijayanagara dynasties, Vol. II, No. 67 (Madras: Printed and Pub. by the superintendent, Gov't Press, 1916), 309.
Dr. Usha R Balakrishnan is an art historian and curator based in Mumbai. She is a highly regarded independent scholar of Indian art and culture and the pre-eminent historian of Indian jewellery. She is the Principal Curator of the World Diamond Museum and serves on the expert committee of Kerala Museums.
Usha has a Ph.D. in Ancient Indian Culture and a post-doctorate degree in Museum Studies from New York University, USA. She has worked at the Brooklyn Museum, New York, and was the Indian representative for Sotheby’s, the international auction house. Her publications include: Dance of the Peacock: Jewellery Traditions of India, on the five-thousand-year history of Indian jewellery, Jewels of the Nizam, the first publication on the renowned collection of royal Indian jewellery, and Treasures of the Deccan: Jewels of the Nizams, which brings together fabulous jewels of the Nizams of Hyderabad from around the world, and rare archival photographs.
Her curatorial projects include: Alamkāra: The Beauty of Ornament, at the jewellery gallery at the National Museum, New Delhi, India: Jewels that Enchanted the World at the Moscow Kremlin Museum, Enduring Splendor: The Jewelry of India’s Thar Desert for the Fowler Museum, University of California Los Angeles and Shringara: Adornment, the jewellery gallery at the CSMVS (formerly Prince of Wales Museum), Mumbai in 2020.
Instagram: @balakrishnan.usha
