Hiraṇyavarṇa Mahāvihāra (Kwa Bāha), Patan (Lalitpur), Nepal
By Archishman Sarker
Introduction
The evolution of manuscript cultures in Nepal, which were often housed in monasteries, has been shaped by centuries of assimilation, transformation, and appropriation, facilitated by the region’s distinctive geographical position as a pivotal nexus in trans-Himalayan trade, pilgrimage, and cultural exchange. The region being well-known today for its unparalleled contributions to Buddhist Sanskrit manuscript studies, Nepal and its monasteries has served as a crucial repository for an extensive corpus of Buddhist, Brahmanical, and Jain manuscripts. These manuscripts, which were widely collected and disseminated across European institutions during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, provided the foundation for critical editions of numerous Buddhist Sanskrit treatises and profoundly influenced the trajectory of modern scholarship. This intellectual legacy was enabled by Nepal’s historical emergence as a hub for manuscript preservation, translation, production and circulation.
The Hiraṇyavarṇa Mahāvihāra (Kwa Bāha) in Patan (Lalitpur), Nepal, is one of the largest and most popular among the bāhas (translated from Newari as a ‘courtyard’) in Kathmandu and adjoining Lalitpur. The name of the monastery Hiraṇyavarṇa Mahāvihāra, literally translated as the Golden Temple, derives from the architecture of the monastery, with its ample use of gold, silver, brass work and inlays which lends a golden hue to the entire structure. It is said to have been established by king Bhaskardeva (c. 1039 - 1048 C.E.), from whom the monastery gets its complete name, which is mentioned in records and inscriptions— Bhāskaradeva Hiraṇyavarṇa Mahāvihāra. The monastery prides itself in the twenty-first century as one of the largest samghas within the larger Kathmandu Valley, and as a popular destination for the recitation ceremony of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitāsūtra manuscript- in which a large number of Buddhists and Hindus alike from the Kathmandu valley and beyond participate in, as it is believed that it bestows merits, good luck and fortune.
Background and history
By the twelfth century, the trade, commerce, and pilgrimage networks connecting the medieval cities of Kathmandu, Lalitpur, and Bhaktapur with northern India and Tibet had already established the Kathmandu valley as a central conduit for the transmission of material and intellectual cultures across the Himalayan region. The history of manuscript collections in the monasteries of Nepal is best studied within the region’s broader historical role as a mediator of trans-Himalayan exchanges, and not isolated from the historical layers, continuities and discontinuities. Although the monastery is located in the heart of Patan (Lalitpur), and there have been numerous publications on the Bāha itself and its popular religious ceremonies and Tantric rituals, the collections of the monastery still remain shrouded in mystery. In the 1990s, the Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project (which later culminated into the Nepal-German Manuscript Cataloguing Project) undertook a large-scale effort to microfilm manuscripts from monasteries, public repositories, and private collections across Nepal. It was largely focussed on the collections of the Kaiser Library in Kathmandu, while manuscripts from several other regions, including different monasteries, of Nepal were also brought to Kathmandu. The microfilm versions are today housed at the National Archives in Kathmandu, being one of the most important resources for anyone researching in Sanskrit and Buddhist manuscript of north India or Nepal. However, the manuscripts housed at the Hiraṇyavarṇa Mahāvihāra were omitted from this exercise as it was believed by the priests at the monastery that producing digital copies of its manuscripts, might rob them off their tantric powers.
The Monastery and its Collection
The monastery is a double storied structure with a central courtyard (bāha). It is walking distance from the Patan Durbar Square and a stone’s throw away from the nearby Nāg Bāha. Before one actually sees the gates of the monastery, flanked by two large stone lions, one has to pass through a maze of lanes in old Patan with antiquities shops lined up on both sides catering to tourists and antiquarians alike, and which often operate in the grey area between legal and illegal antiquities trading. However the monastery itself has an imposing presence in the area, and albeit the modern concrete jungle of Patan, it can still be seen from far away. Once one enters the monastery’s courtyard one gets to experience the entire complexity of its architecture. Fig. 1 illustrates the monastery’s courtyard, dominated by an intricately adorned svayambhū caitya. The centre of attention in the collections of the monastery is an Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitāsūtra manuscript. The Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitāsūtra is amongst the earliest scriptures in the Mahāyāna tradition of thought. This is a foundational sūtra of the Mahāyānist Buddhist body of literature and it assumed its now known structure by developing gradually between the 1st B.C.E. to the 1st C.E. The manuscript is speculated to have been copied by scribe Ānanda Bhikṣu of Kapitanagar around 1225 CE during the reign of king Abhaya Malla (c. 1216 - 1255 CE). The text of the manuscript is in gold letters containing 325 folios, measuring around 22 x 5.5 inches. The first four folios contain illuminations from the life of the Buddha as well as goddess Prajñāpāramitā as Tārā. The last 25 folios contain the colophon, which includes details on the restoration (jīrṇoddhāra) ceremonies of the manuscript. The manuscript remains central to the monastery’s ritual life, with recitations performed upon request by lay Buddhist devotees, a practice that illustrates the active participation of manuscripts in the religious and social lives of communities. Fig. 2 depicts the deity inside the main Śākyamuni temple on the ground floor, where the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitāsūtra is ritually enshrined. The Avalokiteśvara temple is on the first floor (Fig. 3 and 4), and the interior of the Prajñāpāramitā temple on the ground floor (Fig. 5), where the recitation ceremony is performed.
As with a large number of important monasteries in Nepal, the primary collection of the monastery is manuscripts from different time periods and from different geographical regions, which were brought to the monastery for preservation, translation, transmission or gifted as a donation. The monastery also has a considerable collection of Buddhist, as well as Hindu, statues, several objects which were received as gifts: many of these can be seen in the monastery and its temples. Fig. 8 is an oct-alloy Avalokiteśvara sculpture, in the western corner of the central courtyard, beside which another oct-alloy image of Siṃhanādāvalokiteśvara (Fig. 9). However many of these objects are also kept within the vaults of the monastery, alongside other precious items, to which the general public, including an academic, has no access. Numerous inscriptions have been found in and around Kwa Bāha, dating from N.S. 519 (Nepal Sambat: 1398 CE) onwards, though only a limited number have been published. One notable inscription, dated to N.S. 653, records an offering of two bells and a gold ornament by Śrī Ujotadeva of Dolakhā, situated to the east of the Kathmandu Valley. The oldest ceremonial begging bowl in the Kwa Bāha collection, donated in N.S. 654, was contributed by the chief elder of Śrī Yithilañ Vihāra (Nag Bāha). Another inscription, dated N.S. 757, commemorates gifts made during a feast attended by the reigning king, Siddhi Narasimha. Additionally, an inscription from N.S. 762 documents an offering of seven finials for the shrine by Śrī Panduja Sakya, who had amassed wealth after thirty-three years of residence in Tibet. In the subsequent year, N.S. 763 (1642 CE), a resident of Jhotapol (can be perhaps understood as present Jhapa district of eastern Nepal) and his wife donated various utensils to Śākyamuni Buddha in honour of the Makarasaṅkrānti festival. Thus, given the historical popularity of the monastery and its emergence as a socio-economic focal point of the Buddhist community of Kathmandu, it can be fairly presumed that the monastery has a larger collection of manuscripts as well as antiquities, many of which are inscribed, which have not yet been explored. The process of gifting and donation continues to this day, sometimes specifically for the jīrṇoddhāra ceremony of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitāsūtra manuscript, and at other times to the monastery itself. It is also true that Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitāsūtra manuscripts are also housed across several other monasteries in the Kathmandu Valley, but the cult that has developed around the recitation and jīrṇoddhāra ceremony at the Hiraṇyavarṇa Mahāvihārais unique and most popular.
Recitation of Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitāsūtra manuscript and jīrṇoddhāra ceremony
During my fieldwork in Nepal in June 2023, I had the opportunity to witness the recitation (Newari: pā thyākegu) of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitāsūtra manuscript at the Hiraṇyavarṇamahāvihāra. The recitation ceremony itself, as shown in the video in Fig. 5, involves a performative engagement with the text. Fig. 6 capture a moment of individual devotion in front of the Śākyamuni shrine, underscoring the monastery’s primary role in mediating the spiritual aspirations of the lay community. Fig. 7 shows the main doorway from the inside courtyard of the monastery. Although I was unable to witness the jīrṇoddhāra process during my visit, as it occurs only during specific Tibetan calendrical months, my conversations with a Vajrayāna priest involving several aspects of these rituals provided critical insights into the symbolic and material dimensions of restoration practices. The jīrṇoddhāra of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitāsūtra exemplifies the intersection of social memory, material preservation, and ritual renewal, ensuring the manuscript’s continued vitality as both a physical object and a locus of religious meaning. These practices essentially reveal the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitāsūtra as a living entity, embedded within the ritual and social fabric of Vajrayāna Buddhism.
The colonial period profoundly transformed the material culture surrounding Nepalese manuscripts, reshaping practices of circulation, preservation, and veneration – a legacy that continues to influence contemporary rituals. During a conversation, I learned that materials central to the ritual conservation of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitāsūtramanuscript at the Golden Temple have historically depended on access to specific trade routes and regions across the Himalayas and Tibet. The mid-eighteenth century witnessed significant political tensions among the Mallas, Tibetans, and Gurkhas, driven by disputes over the adulteration of Tibetan currency produced in Nepal – a measure the Mallas employed to finance their defence against Gurkha aggression. The Tibetans, bolstered by Qing military support, ultimately precipitated the collapse of the Malla kingdoms. Yet, the disruption to the region's religious and social manuscript traditions remained relatively contained. Following the 1775 treaty between the Gurkhas and the Tibetans, and the Gurkha annexation of Darjeeling and the Chumbi Valley – undermining Tibet's trade with British India via Calcutta – Kathmandu, Kyiorong, and Kuti emerged as key trade routes. This status persisted until British control over Chumbi Valley, resulting from conflicts among the Bhutanese, Gurkhas, and British, restored access through the corridor. However, the nineteenth century’s geopolitical upheavals, particularly the colonial "Great Game," profoundly disrupted Nepal’s cultural landscape, restricting access to material culture – alienating religious practices from historical continuities, and fragmenting socio-historical memory. This era saw a fragmentation of Nepal’s socio-historical memory, as the alienation of religious and social life from its material past disrupted established practices of textual veneration, transmission, and continuity. In 1954, trade through the Chumbi valley again subsided following Tibet’s annexation by the People's Republic of China, and US restrictions on trade with China. However, Tibet’s annexation by China had far-reaching consequences on the material culture, socio-economy, and social memory of the entire Himalayan region and its adjacent areas. These shifts underscore the intricate relationship between material culture, trade networks, and the historical contingencies shaping manuscript traditions. Thus the polishing stones used in the jīrṇoddhāra ceremony at the Hiraṇyavarṇa Mahāvihāra, once sourced from Tibet, were replaced by stones from Rajasthan following the closure of Tibetan trade routes. Similarly, the arrival of sellotape in Nepal introduced its use in manuscript repairs.
Conclusion
Ritual practices, such as the veneration of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitāsūtra manuscript at the Golden Temple, exemplify the intersection of religious performance, material culture, and economic networks. The materials employed in these ceremonies, their sourcing, and their circulation are deeply embedded within broader trade systems and the collective memory of Himalayan Buddhist communities. Furthermore, the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitāsūtra manuscript at the Hiraṇyavarṇamahāvihāra exemplifies the potential of manuscripts to function not merely as repositories of textual knowledge but as active agents in the mediation of memory, identity, and historical consciousness – no evidence exists of similar jīrṇoddhāra ritual in medieval eastern India: which I suppose is entirely circumstantial. I am drawn to this conclusion because jīrṇoddhāra as a concept is prevalent in all the main Brahmanical traditions, including Śaivism and Śaktism. It is mentioned in Chapter 16 of the Agni Purāṇa, the Anukarmavidhi section of the Kamikāgama, and the Māyamatam, a South Indian architectural treatise, to name a few. In practice, it is still performed with regard to repair of old temples as well as the consecration of idols. It is popular in folklore as well, especially in modern Bengal, with the mention of the incident of Ramakrishna’s insistence on mending the broken leg of an idol of Kṛṣṇa, rather than buying a new one at the Dakhineshwar temple, to be found in Mahendranath Gupta’s Śrī-Śrī-Rāmakṛṣṇa-Kathāmṛta, written between 1902 and 1932.
Further Reading:
Formigatti, Camillo A. “Sanskrit Manuscripts in the Cambridge University Library: Three Centuries of History and Preservation.” In Indic Manuscript Cultures through the Ages: Material, Textual, and Historical Investigations, edited by Vincenzo Vergiani, Daniele Cuneo and Camillo Alessio Formigatti, 3-45. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2017.
Gellner, David N. 1992. Monk, Householder and Tantric Priest. Cambridge University Press.
Littunen, Olli-Pekka Antero. “The Social Life of a Manuscript.” Textual Cultures 17, no. 2 , Special Issue: Material Texts: Religion, Mobility, and Responsibility (Fall 2024): 106–136.
Locke, John K. 1985. Buddhist Monasteries of Nepal: Survey of Bāhas and Bāhis of Kathmandu Valley. Sahayogi Press Pvt. Ltd.
Sakya, H. And Vaidya, T. R. (eds). 1970. Medieval Nepal (Colophions and Inscriptions). Kathmandu: T. R. Vaidya.
Shakya, Min Bahadur. 2004. Hiraṇyavarṇa Mahavihara: A unique Newar Buddhist monastery. Patan: Nagarjuna Publication.
Slusser, Mary Shepherd. 1982. Nepal Mandala: A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley. Princeton University Press.
